2025 Downtown Cleveland Voter Guide

Mayoral Election

Justin M. Bibb

Education: Trinity High School, Garfield Heights, Class of 2005 College: American University BA/SPA 5/10/2009 Law School Case Western Reserve JD/MGT 5/20/2018 

Occupation: Mayor, The City of Cleveland 

  • Downtown is the heart of our city. My dream is for it to be a neighborhood that remains vibrant no matter the time of day or the day of the week. I want it to be a place not just where people come to work or occasionally come for a ballgame, but a place where people live, play, and spend their days. Connecting our waterfronts to our downtown is essential to making that vision a reality. But for too long, our riverfront and our lakefront have been inaccessible to everyday Clevelanders, blocked off by highways or taken up by private use. My goal is to ensure our river and lakefronts are seamlessly connected to Downtown. One of the ways we are doing this is by concentrating our development efforts on a Shore-Core-Shore framework. We took a historic step toward making this dream a reality with the North Coast Master Plan. We collected input from over 5,000 Cleveland residents about what they want to see in our city’s lakefront. We also created a nonprofit to ensure this vision lives beyond my administration – the North Coast Waterfront Development Corporation (NCWDC). We also secured $130 million in federal funding awarded through the U.S. Department of Transportation. This money will allow us to build a pedestrian land bridge and turn the Shoreway into a pedestrian-friendly boulevard connected to the City grid. The city and NCWDC are about to close the RFQ period for developers to transform 50 acres of the downtown lakefront. 

  • Improving efficiency and communication across City Hall is one of my top priorities. Over the past few years, we’ve made progress by breaking down silos and modernizing outdated systems. For example, my administration introduced the City’s first Chief of Integrated Development, a position designed to break down siloes across Building and Housing, Community Development, Economic Development, and Planning. We have also worked internally and externally to improve operations and communications at City Hall. We have invested in a city-wide strategic plan which maps out specific ways we can improve internal operations and we have improved access to information by launching a new City of Cleveland website. Going forward, we will continue to focus on: - Modernizing our technology and processes so departments can share information seamlessly and residents and businesses get faster, more reliable service. - Improving internal communication through more consistent updates, better use of data dashboards, and ensuring staff at all levels have access to the information they need to succeed, and - Investing in leadership development and training so managers are equipped to lead high-performing, collaborative teams. 

  • Downtown anchors Cleveland, which anchors the entire region. I am very open to trying new approaches to bringing development to downtown. My administration is strategically using Tax Increment Financing – deployed with transparency and accountability – to generate new economic activity downtown. We’ve made sure that the prosperity we create ripples out across the city. For example, we now require Community Benefits Agreements (CBAs) for projects that receive $250,000 or more in city assistance – we can use these to entice further benefits from developers such as commitments to hire women and minority-owned firms, support good union jobs, fund workforce development programs or other agreements. If the developer doesn’t meet its agreements, we can withhold, and then reduce TIF payment. We also worked with the City Council to ensure other neighborhoods benefit from the TIF as well. But we know it’s essential for us to continue to strengthen downtown. I look forward to continuing to work in partnership to find new ways to attract more employers and residents to the neighborhood.

  • I want to make all neighborhoods, especially Downtown, more walkable and bikeable. My administration is enthusiastic about the 15 minute city concept, which imagines a city where people can easily meet all their needs within 15 minutes of where they live. Having more walkable neighborhoods improves people's health and also helps build a stronger sense of community. As such, we’re encouraging private investment along historic commercial corridors with high-frequency transit service and promoting transportation choices with things like new bike lanes. We’re making sure more people live in neighborhoods with access to parks and greenspace. My administration is also planting trees throughout the city. We have also shown our commitment to public spaces Downtown by investing in North Coast Yard, a new pop-up park at the Lakefront, and by removing the jersey barriers from Public Square. 

  • First of all, I feel incredibly grateful to have a great partnership with the Downtown Cleveland Inc Safety Ambassadors whose assistance to the neighborhood’s visitors and residents goes a long way in making people feel safe and welcome downtown. We believe so strongly in the value of the ambassadors that the City has, for the first time, opted in to participate in the Downtown Special Improvement District. Additionally, my administration recently proposed legislation to require downtown parking lot operators submit detailed safety plans to the chief of police. Plans will include items such as lighting and signage, cameras and security staffing. By combining strong partnerships with clear accountability and smart safety standards, we’re ensuring that downtown Cleveland continues to be a place where people want to live, work, and spend time. 

LaVerne Gore

Education: MBA, M.Ed, MPH 

Occupation: President, LA Gore & Associates. 

  • Downtown Cleveland must be a place where families, businesses, and visitors feel safe and confident. My vision is rooted in fiscal responsibility and smart growth: before adopting large-scale projects, such as the Shore-Core-Shore plan, we must carefully review their cost, long-term maintenance, and true benefit to the city. Any plan should strengthen—not overshadow—the core of downtown, where public safety, commerce, housing, and walkability remain the backbone of our success. Cleveland doesn’t need flashy ideas that drain resources; we need thoughtful, sustainable steps that preserve our assets, respect taxpayers, and create a core that truly thrives. 

  • City Hall must operate with the same accountability and efficiency we expect from private enterprise. I will insist on clear performance measures, streamlined processes, and transparent communication between departments. Too often, bureaucracy creates delays and confusion. My approach will focus on cutting through red tape, requiring departments to coordinate directly, and using modern management tools to track progress. Clevelanders deserve a government that is disciplined, efficient, and service-oriented—not one that wastes time or taxpayer dollars. 

  • The best way to attract and retain business is to ensure Cleveland is safe, affordable, and competitive. While I am open to reviewing new incentive programs, I believe incentives must be carefully targeted, temporary, and deliver a return on investment for the city—not giveaways with no accountability. Businesses stay and grow where public safety is reliable, infrastructure is strong, and the workforce is prepared. My administration will create a climate of stability and predictability, where employers know their investment in Cleveland is respected and supported by sound governance. 

  • Downtown must feel safe, clean, and functional before anything else. That means improving lighting, increasing police presence, keeping streets and sidewalks well-maintained, and ensuring basic services are dependable. Public spaces should be inviting, but they must also be practical and cost-effective to maintain. I will work with private partners and community organizations to fund and sustain these improvements, ensuring that taxpayer dollars are spent wisely. My priority will always be creating an environment where residents, businesses, and visitors know Cleveland is secure, accessible, and open for opportunity. 

  • The first responsibility of city leadership is public safety. If people do not feel safe, they will not live, work, or invest in Cleveland. My administration will strengthen police presence downtown, ensure officers have the resources and training they need, and work closely with law enforcement to deter crime before it happens. At the same time, we will hold departments accountable for visible results. A safe city is also a well-maintained city. Clean, well-lit streets, dependable city services, and consistent enforcement of laws create an atmosphere of order and respect. I will partner with local businesses, residents, and community organizations to keep downtown welcoming—not only during large events but every day. By combining disciplined law enforcement, fiscal responsibility, and community pride, we will make downtown Cleveland a place where families, businesses, and visitors feel secure and confident. 

City Council Election

Richard A. Starr

Education: Masters in Business Administration Baldwin Wallace 

Occupation: Cleveland City Councilmember Ward 5 

  • Adaptive reuse of underutilized or outdated office buildings is a sustainable and economically viable approach to revitalizing urban areas. Economic incentives can play a crucial role in encouraging developers and property owners to undertake adaptive reuse projects. Some benefits of using economic incentives for adaptive reuse include: 1. Preserving architectural heritage: Economic incentives can encourage developers to preserve and repurpose historic buildings, maintaining the architectural character and cultural significance of a city. 2. Creating affordable housing: Adaptive reuse projects can convert office buildings into residential units, providing much-needed affordable housing options in urban areas where housing supply is limited. 3. Stimulating local economies: The adaptive reuse of office buildings can attract new businesses and residents, boosting local economies and creating jobs. 4. Reducing environmental impact: Reusing existing buildings can reduce the need for new construction, which helps to conserve resources and minimize environmental impacts associated with demolition and new development. In conclusion, I believe that using economic incentives as an effective tool for promoting adaptive reuse is a valuable approach, and I will continue to support its strategic implementation to encourage sustainable urban development while preserving cultural heritage and enhancing the economic vitality of cities. 

  • Yes the Job Creation Income Tax Credit has been effective in attracting business to the city. Several examples of companies receiving tax credits under this program are companies like LabConnect, Cleveland Kitchen Co., and Canon Healthcare USA have been approved for tax credits with a goal of promising to create new jobs and retain existing ones. To further strengthen business attraction efforts, some potential improvements or alternative policies could include: 1. Regularly evaluating the effectiveness of existing incentives: Conducting periodic assessments of incentive programs like the Job Creation Income Tax Credit can help policymakers identify areas where adjustments may be necessary to maximize their impact on business attraction and job creation. 2. Diversifying the incentive portfolio: Offering a variety of incentives, such as grants, loans, and workforce development programs, can help attract a wider range of businesses with different needs and preferences. 3. Enhancing collaboration between government, businesses, and community stakeholders: Strengthening partnerships among various stakeholders can help identify the most pressing needs and opportunities for economic development, leading to more targeted and effective incentive policies.

  • I believe that the City plays a vital role in creating vibrant, livable, and attractive public spaces through placemaking initiatives. The City should actively participate in designing and implementing strategies that improve the physical, social, and economic aspects of public spaces, such as streets, parks, and squares. I fully support the implementation of standard design guidelines for streetscape improvements in downtown and neighborhood commercial corridors. Consistent and well-designed streetscapes can significantly enhance the quality of life, economic vitality, and safety of urban areas. Some benefits of having standard design guidelines include: 1. Improved visual consistency and identity: Uniform streetscape elements, such as sidewalks, street furniture, lighting, and landscaping, can create a unique character and sense of place. 2. Better safety and accessibility: Standardized streetscape designs can ensure that sidewalks, crosswalks, and other pedestrian amenities are safe, accessible, and user-friendly for all residents, including those with disabilities. 3. Boosted economic development: Attractive and well-maintained streetscapes can draw in businesses, residents, and visitors, leading to increased economic activity and growth. 4. Community involvement: Successful placemaking often involves engaging the local community in planning and design. The City should promote public participation and consider residents' needs, preferences, and cultural identity when developing streetscape guidelines. 5. Maintenance and durability: Keeping streetscape improvements well-maintained and long-lasting is essential for maximizing their benefits. The City should allocate sufficient resources and develop comprehensive maintenance plans to ensure that streetscape elements remain functional, safe, and attractive over time. 6. Multimodal transit: Streetscape improvements should prioritize integrating different transportation modes, such as walking, cycling, and public transit. This approach can reduce traffic congestion, air pollution, and greenhouse gas emissions while encouraging active and sustainable transportation. 7. Climate resilience: As cities face increasing climate change impacts, streetscape guidelines should include features that strengthen climate resilience, like permeable surfaces, green infrastructure, and shade structures to reduce heat island effects and manage stormwater runoff. 

  • Having sports stadiums in the downtown area delivers substantial benefits to the City, contributing significantly to its economic vitality, social fabric, and international reputation. 1. Economic development: Sports stadiums attract thousands of visitors annually, including tourists, business travelers, and local residents, who spend money at nearby hotels, upscale restaurants, retail outlets, and entertainment venues. This influx of visitors stimulates job creation in hospitality, retail, and service sectors and increases tax revenues that support public infrastructure and community programs. 2. Community cohesion: Sports stadiums act as dynamic communal hubs where residents gather to enjoy major sporting events, concerts, festivals, and cultural activities. They strengthen local identity and pride, fostering a sense of belonging. The stadiums also host youth sports leagues, charity events, and community outreach programs that enhance social integration and youth engagement. 3. Increased visibility and prestige: When the city hosts prominent sporting competitions—such as national championships, international tournaments, or high-profile exhibitions—it garners extensive media coverage, elevating its global profile. This recognition attracts international visitors, new residents, and investments, positioning the city as a leading destination for sports tourism and economic development. The City must support sports stadiums proactively through several strategic initiatives: 1. Infrastructure investment: Upgrading and maintaining transportation infrastructure—including light rail, bus lines, pedestrian pathways, and parking facilities—ensures easy access from all city districts. Expanding amenities, such as hospitality lounges, digital signage, and improved lighting, enhances the visitor experience. 2. Event promotion: The City should implement targeted marketing campaigns utilizing digital media, local partnerships, and sponsorships to boost attendance and engagement. Collaborations with local businesses, tourism agencies, and media outlets can amplify outreach efforts. 3. Public safety and security: Developing comprehensive safety protocols—covering crowd control, emergency response, surveillance, and coordination with law enforcement—creates a secure environment that encourages attendance and ensures a positive experience for all visitors. 

Rebecca Maurer

Education: University of Chicago, BA ‘11 Stanford Law School, JD ‘14 

Occupation: Cleveland City Council, Ward 12 

  • Cleveland has led the way on adaptive reuse of office buildings. As of 2024, 12% of our office inventory is undergoing or planned for construction. That’s why we ended up in the Washington Post under the title “America's Best Example of Turning Around a Dying Downtown” -- in no small part thanks to the advocacy of Downtown Cleveland!. The recent foreclosures of Reserve Square and the Statler put a damper on that story and I believe the next Councilperson to represent the majority of Downtown Cleveland’s housing stock needs to be ready to fight for positive outcomes in our housing market -- and that will absolutely require utilizing all the economic incentives available. I support economic incentives that fill a gap in the financial stack and allow a project to be successful and profitable for the developers and investors that otherwise could not have happened. We need incentives in a city like Cleveland where our real estate market is still “upside down” in many places -- meaning it takes more to build a project than you can sell it for. While Downtown may be closer than some neighborhoods in Cleveland to turning the market right-side-up, we’re still far from that day. The fiscal instability of the Statler and Reserve Square highlight that issue. We will need to support sensible, proportional economic incentives for a long time to come and I’m eager to be the Councilperson who will roll up her sleeves, get into the details, and help hammer out those deals. For instance, I’m proud of supporting the recent Bedrock agreement, which put economic incentive dollars into the project, particularly for public infrastructure investments needed to make the project successful. I was intimately involved with that project and also made sure that the project supported by public funds will have high-quality security and janitorial jobs -- the types of jobs that might even allow employees to live downtown, not just work there. 

  • In my opinion, the Job Creation Income Tax Credit has been a step in the right direction compared to previous programs, but it has not yet reached its full potential in attracting businesses to Cleveland. The Tax Credit is well-structured in that it ties directly to payroll taxes, ensuring that the city only refunds dollars after jobs have truly been created. This makes it more responsible than the old Job Creation Incentive Program, which required upfront city spending. That said, the current requirement of creating at least 50 jobs to qualify may set the bar too high, leaving out many small- and medium-sized businesses that are the backbone of our local economy. At the same time, reducing the threshold too far -- say, down to 3-5 jobs -- could create an administrative burden that outweighs the benefits. If elected, my goal would be to work closely with business leaders and city staff to identify a more balanced threshold that incentivizes job growth without straining city resources. Another area for improvement is marketing and communication. The Tax Credit is underutilized in part because we haven’t effectively advertised it. Many businesses simply don’t know it exists. By increasing outreach and communication about the program, we could ensure that more employers take advantage of it. Finally, I want to emphasize that business attraction is about more than tax credits. I often find myself saying to people that we make it very hard to do business in the city. You have to really want to be here. Our permitting processes, occupancy approvals, and general communication with businesses are often slow and confusing. Streamlining these basic city functions would send as strong a message to businesses as any tax incentive. If Cleveland is serious about growth, we need both strong incentives and a city government that is responsive, efficient, and easy to work with. 

  • I’m not just a yes, I’m a “hell yes” on placemaking in public spaces. Creating welcoming, beautiful public spaces is one of the most powerful things the City can do to make Cleveland feel like home and to make downtown shine as both a neighborhood and a destination. I absolutely support standardized design guidelines for streetscape improvements. But even more than that, I think we need standardized maintenance. Too often we install a bioswale, new landscaping, or another great streetscape feature and then the City just lets it go. We also have a great partner in Downtown Cleveland. But the City needs to do a better of clarifying the responsibilities for Downtown Cleveland’s Clean + Safe program and the responsibilities of the city. And sometimes it’s the basics that matter most. If elected, I’d push to standardize trash receptacles downtown and ensure a regular pickup schedule. Those little details send a big message about whether Cleveland takes pride in its public spaces. 

  • Professional sports and stadiums undoubtedly have civic value. Sports teams are a source of pride (and in too many instances in Cleveland, heartbreak). They are also a part of our core humanity -- creating connection, family, and community. There’s also a value in having these stadiums in the heart of downtown. They contribute to the density and excitement of the urban core. There’s a reason the Colosseum was in the heart of ancient Rome, and not on the outskirts of the city. For this same reason, I support Downtown Cleveland’s opposition to moving the Browns Stadium to Brook Park. That being said, I do not support Cleveland issuing a blank check to try to publicly finance the stadiums at any cost to keep our sports teams in town. It was a mistake to fund the Browns Stadium through the city’s general fund and divert millions of dollars a year from our badly needed city services to the NFL team. Along with the Mayor and our County Executive, I would not be supportive of repeating that mistake in a new deal. I do support ticket, parking, and admission taxes being used to support stadiums because it’s connected to the revenue generated by the stadium. And I also support restructuring the Sin Tax program to make maintenance improvements at Gateway (Progressive Field and Rocket Arena) sustainable for years to come. I think we have a variety of tools we can use to support and encourage these professional sports teams without draining city coffers. 

  • My goal would be to treat Downtown as a neighborhood with community meetings, stakeholders meetings, and clear, consistent communication. Too often, the narrative of Cleveland has pitted Downtown against neighborhoods. We need to reframe that narrative and say clearly that Downtown is a neighborhood. It’s not either/or. It’s both/and, particularly because Downtown is a neighborhood that also serves as a critical economic engine for our city and region. 

Mohammad Faraj

Education: Cuyahoga Community College, Associates Degree / Cleveland State University, Bachelors Degree / Valparaiso University Law School, Juris Doctor Degree 

Occupation: Currently a full-time candidate 

  • Cleveland is already a leader in adaptive reuse of outdated offices, hotels, and warehouses, which shows the potential of aligning development with community needs. But I believe the city still needs to negotiate better outcomes in public subsidy deals to ensure these projects benefit residents and small businesses. I am certainly not against economic incentives for development and have made a deliberate effort during this campaign to talk with developers including those that specifically participate in brownfield remediation. But I firmly believe that the city is not negotiating the best outcomes in these public subsidy deals – and that that failure is hurting residents and small businesses. I’ve been thankful to participate in a variety of meetings regarding Cleveland’s newly updated Community Benefits Ordinance, which seeks to standardize some of the more inconsistent aspects of the process while also ensuring subsidies translate into neighborhood improvements, as opposed to just shareholder value. Some community benefits that can be negotiated certainly include improvements to public infrastructure such as parks, public spaces, and public art. Just as importantly, as the city becomes more transit-oriented, we should prioritize infrastructure that supports pedestrian safety and aligns with community needs including stable access to groceries and pharmacies. As councilperson, I am committed to building the relationships necessary to attract workers in Cleveland but we also have to retain workers, which means ensuring residents’ experiences with our local government is accessible, dependable, and reliable. 

  • The city of Cleveland’s ability to spend money is mostly based on the revenue from income tax collected. That of course means that we need Clevelanders working and neighbors from outside the city coming to Cleveland to work. And I recognize that the Job Creation Income Tax Credit exists to help create the jobs that ultimately lead to a stronger economy, but it requires a very delicate balance. And the councilperson, who is the residents’ representative when it comes to the municipal budget, must push to ensure Cleveland isn’t taking one step forward but two steps back. By this I mean that if a business receives both the Job Creation Income Tax Credit and local property tax abatement, only to then freeze hiring or participate in mass layoffs, then I think it is very difficult to argue governmental intervention led to net increase in economic benefits. For me, the focus on helping to strengthen attraction efforts depends upon workforce development, which pertains to employment that doesn’t only require a college degree. Workforce development and union apprenticeship programs are actually a core commitment within my Flexible Development campaign priority, as I believe this policy area to be key to improving public safety and ensuring a stable economic region. Successful workforce development, which ultimately starts with Cleveland schools, is a key ingredient many state, national, and international businesses are looking for when considering investment into Cleveland. 

  • The city has an essential role in placemaking, and that role must be exercised in collaboration with residents, businesses, and community stakeholders. Public spaces should be welcoming, safe, and reflective of the neighborhoods they serve, and that requires intentional planning. I would support standard design guidelines for streetscape improvements in both downtown and neighborhood commercial corridors, because consistency helps create a cohesive, high-quality urban experience while still allowing room for local character and creativity. 

  • I have concerns about how the move of the Browns stadium will affect downtown, but it’s pretty clear this decision has long been decided. In general, I don’t think the city should be providing mega-subsidies to sports stadiums. The economic impact of the stadium leaving is top of mind. The value of having our sports stadiums downtown has always been tied to the way they bring tens of thousands of visitors into the city on game days. Anyone who has seen downtown Cleveland during a Browns game knows the ripple effect that energy has related to restaurants, hotels, parking, and small businesses that all benefit from that surge of people. Losing the Browns would mean more than the obvious things but it would mean losing that steady stream of visitors and the economic activity they generate for our city. At the same time, I think this moment is an opportunity to be bold and creative in how we reimagine downtown and the lakefront. If we want Cleveland to be more resilient, we need to build towards a downtown experience that isn’t only busy on Sundays, but vibrant year-round. That means investing in housing, the arts, public spaces, and small businesses that give people reasons to come downtown outside of sporting events. Supporting stadiums can be part of the strategy, but the larger vision has to be about creating a downtown that’s dynamic, diverse, and welcoming every day of the week. 

  • The city and council people have an essential role in stewarding effective collaboration between residents, businesses, and other stakeholders. Also, engaging with downtown stakeholders also means working closely with the Wards 5 and 8 councilmembers. All three of us will share responsibility for representing downtown residents and stakeholders, and it won’t be possible to pursue competing strategies. I am a proven coalition builder and will work to create synergy and coalesce around shared goals and opportunities. Economic development is a priority for me, not only through pathways to education and job creation, but also by helping small businesses thrive. That means listening to their challenges, responding appropriately, and engaging directly with local merchant associations working to support the economic development and safety goals for the city. By connecting economic growth to real community needs, we can ensure downtown is not only a hub for business, but also a place where residents and entrepreneurs feel supported and safe. As councilman, I would support these efforts through legislative and budget priorities, programming, and by actively engaging with local stakeholders like Downtown Cleveland, Inc. and community groups that are vital partners in this work. I would also remain committed to my core priority of reliable public safety, because true placemaking only thrives in communities that feel safe and stable. The members of the Second District know that I believe reliable public safety entails focusing on what prevents crime, rather than merely reacting to it. From this perspective, placemaking, economic development, affordable housing, access to food, and opportunity are all required for Cleveland, including downtown, to feel safe for residents and visitors. 

Stephanie D. Howse-Jones

Education: B.S. Civil (Environmental) Engineering - Florida A&M University; M.A. - Environmental Studies, Cleveland State University. 

Occupation: Councilwoman- Ward 7, Cleveland City Council (City of Cleveland)

  • I view economic incentives for the adaptive reuse of underutilized or outdated office buildings as a strategic tool for economic development. When used effectively, they can attract businesses, create family-sustaining jobs, and grow Cleveland’s tax base—enabling the City to reinvest in essential services and improve quality of life for residents. 

  • I have not seen data on the actual results of the Job Creation Income Tax Credit, so it's difficult to fully assess its effectiveness. However, I believe the City should improve communication around the program, both by highlighting its successes and by clearly identifying the specific individuals or departments businesses can engage with to access the credit. Strengthening transparency and outreach could help increase utilization and enhance its impact as a business attraction tool.

  • The City plays a fundamental role in setting high-quality standards for the placemaking of our public spaces. This includes ensuring meaningful community input and collaborating with public and private partners to secure the resources needed to bring design ideas to life. I support the adoption of standard design guidelines for streetscape improvements in both downtown and neighborhood commercial corridors, as they help create cohesive, attractive, and welcoming public spaces.

  • Cleveland’s downtown sports stadiums provide significant value by concentrating activity in the urban core, where the City can efficiently leverage infrastructure and resources. Their presence creates opportunities for residents and visitors to enjoy shared experiences, while also generating economic benefits for nearby businesses. The City should continue to play a supportive role for sports stadiums by ensuring accessibility, public safety, and infrastructure improvements, while also fostering partnerships that maximize community and economic returns from these venues.

  • I will expand my office’s engagement with downtown stakeholders by increasing accessibility and communication. This includes hosting my community drop-in hours at more downtown locations, encouraging stakeholders to subscribe to my weekly e-newsletter for timely policy and community updates, and organizing virtual meetups to connect with those who can’t attend in-person events. I’ll also maintain an open-door policy to ensure ongoing feedback (in person, electronically, and virtually) and collaboration on key issues like public safety, placemaking, and economic development.